Biography of Rem Koolhaas, Dutch Architect

Biography of Rem Koolhaas, Dutch Architect Rem Koolhaas (born November 17, 1944) is a Dutch architect and urbanist known for his innovative, cerebral designs. He has been called a modernist, a deconstructivist, and a structuralist, yet many critics claim he leans toward humanism; his work searches for a link between technology and humanity. Koolhaas teaches at the Graduate School of Design at Harvard University. Fast Facts: Rem Koolhaas Known For: Koolhaas is an architect and urbanist known for his unusual designs.Born: November 17, 1944 in Rotterdam, NetherlandsParents: Anton Koolhaas and Selinde Pietertje RoosenburgSpouse: Madelon VriesendorpChildren: Charlie, TomasNotable Quote: Architecture is a dangerous mixture of power and impotence. Early Life Remment Lucas Koolhaas was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, on November 17, 1944. He spent four years of his youth in Indonesia, where his father, a novelist, served as cultural director. Following in the footsteps of his father, the young Koolhaas began his career as a writer. He was a journalist for the Haase Post in The Hague and later tried his hand at writing movie scripts. Koolhaass writings on architecture won him fame in the field before he had even completed a single building. After graduating in 1972 from the Architecture Association School in London, Koolhaas accepted a research fellowship in the United States. During his visit, he wrote the book Delirious New York, which he described as a retroactive manifesto for Manhattan and which critics hailed as a classic text on modern architecture and society. Career In 1975, Koolhaas founded the Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) in London with Madelon Vriesendorm and Elia and Zoe Zenghelis. Zaha Hadid- a future winner of the Pritzker Architecture Prize- was one of their first interns. Focusing on contemporary design, the company won a competition for an addition to the Parliament in The Hague and a major commission to develop a master plan for a housing quarter in Amsterdam. The firms early work included the 1987 Netherlands Dance Theater, also in The Hague; Nexus Housing in Fukuoka, Japan; and Kunsthal, a museum built in Rotterdam in 1992. Delirious New York was reprinted in 1994 under the title Rem Koolhaas and the Place of Modern Architecture. The same year, Koolhaas published S,M,L,XL in collaboration with the Canadian graphic designer Bruce Mau. Described as a novel about architecture, the book combines works produced by Koolhaass architectural firm with photos, plans, fiction, and cartoons. The Euralille Master Plan and Lille Grand Palais on the France side of the Channel Tunnel were also completed in 1994. Koolhaas also contributed to the design for the Educatorium at the University of Utrecht. Koolhaass OMA completed Maison Bordeaux- perhaps the most famous house built for a man in a wheelchair- in 1998. In 2000, when Koolhaas was in his mid-50s, he won the prestigious Pritzker Prize. In its citation, the prize jury described the Dutch architect as that rare combination of visionary and implementer- philosopher and pragmatist- theorist and prophet. The New York Times declared him to be one of architecture’s most influential thinkers. Since winning the Pritzker Prize, Koolhaass work has been iconic. Notable designs include the Netherlands Embassy in Berlin, Germany (2001);  the Seattle Public Library in Seattle, Washington (2004);  the CCTV Building in Beijing, China (2008);  the Dee and Charles Wyly Theatre in Dallas, Texas (2009);  the Shenzhen Stock Exchange in Shenzhen, China (2013);  the Bibliothà ¨que Alexis de Tocqueville in Caen, France (2016);  the Concrete at Alserkal Avenue in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (2017); and his first residential building in New York City at  121 East 22nd Street. A few decades after founding OMA, Rem Koolhaas reversed the letters and formed AMO, a research reflection of his architecture firm. While OMA remains dedicated to the realization of buildings and masterplans, states the OMA website, AMO operates in areas beyond the traditional boundaries of architecture, including media, politics, sociology, renewable energy, technology, fashion, curating, publishing, and graphic design. Koolhaas continued to do work for Prada and in the summer of 2006, he designed the Serpentine Gallery Pavilion in London. Visionary Pragmatism Koolhaas is known for his pragmatic approach to design. The McCormick Tribune Campus Center in Chicago- completed in 2003- is a good example of his problem-solving. The student center is not the first structure to hug a rail- Frank Gehrys 2000  Experience Music Project (EMP) in Seattle has a monorail that goes directly through that museum, like a Disney extravaganza. The Koolhaas Tube (made of corrugated stainless steel) is more practical, though. The city train connects Chicago with the 1940s campus designed by  Mies van der Rohe. Not only was Koolhaas thinking about urbanist theory with the exterior design, but before designing the interior he set out to document student patterns of behavior to create practical pathways and spaces inside the student center. This was not the first time Koolhaas had played with trains. His Master Plan for Euralille (1989–1994) transformed the northern city of Lille, France, into a tourist destination. Koolhaas took advantage of the completion of the Channel Tunnel, using it as an opportunity to remake the city. Of the project, he said: Paradoxically, at the end of the 20th century, the frank admission of the Promethean ambition- for example, to change the destiny of an entire city- is taboo. Most of the new buildings for the Euralille project were designed by French architects, except for Congrexpo, which Koolhaas himself designed. Architecturally, Congrexpo is scandalously simple, it says on the architects website. It is not a building that defines a clear architectural identity but a building that creates and triggers potential, almost in an urbanistic sense. In 2008, Koolhaas designed the China Central Television Headquarters in Beijing. The 51-story structure looks like an enormous robot. Yet The New York Times writes that it may be the greatest work of architecture built in this century. These designs, like the 2004 Seattle Public Library, defy labels. The Library appears to be made up of unrelated, disharmonious abstract forms, having no visual logic. And yet the free-flowing arrangement of rooms is designed for basic functionality. Thats what Koolhaas is famous for- thinking forward and backward at the same time. Designs of the Mind How are we to respond to structures with glass floors or erratically zigzagging stairs or shimmering translucent walls? Has Koolhaas ignored the needs and aesthetics of the people who will occupy his buildings? Or is he using technology to show us better ways to live? According to the Pritzker Prize jury, Koolhaass work is as much about ideas as it is buildings. He became famous for his writings and social commentary before any of his designs was actually constructed. And some of his most celebrated designs remain on the drawing board. Koolhaas has said that only 5% of his designs ever get built. Thats our dirty secret, he told Der Spiegel. The biggest part of our work for competitions and bid invitations disappears automatically. No other profession would accept such conditions. But you cant look at these designs as waste. Theyre ideas; they will survive in books. Sources â€Å"Jury Citation: Rem Koolhaas.† The Pritzker Architecture Prize.â€Å"IIT McCormick Tribune Campus Center.† OMA.Oehmke, Philipp, and Tobias Rapp. â€Å"Interview with Star Architect Rem Koolhaas.† Spiegel Online, Der Spiegel, 16 Dec. 2011.Ouroussoff, Nicolai. â€Å"Koolhaas, Delirious in Beijing.† The New York Times, The New York Times, 11 July 2011.

How to Get Into Your Top-Choice College Infographic

How to Get Into Your Top-Choice College Infographic SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Applying to colleges can be a long and difficult process. You have to fill out a bunch of applications, write long essays, get letters of recommendation, and so many other things. It's almost impossible to keep track of everything. That's why we've put together this handy infographic full of helpful tips and pointers. Find out just how difficult it is to apply to colleges, where you should focus your attention, and learn how to avoid the most common mistakes. We want to give you the best shot at getting accepted to you top-choice colleges, so continue reading and get a jump start on your application! Share this Image On Your Site pstrongPlease include attribution to prepscholar.com with this graphic./strongbr /br /a href='http://blog.prepscholar.com/how-to-get-into-your-top-choice-college-infographic'img src='http://blog.prepscholar.com/hubfs/Infographic-Get-Into-College.png' alt='How to Get Into Your Top College' width='600px' border='0' //a/p Other Topics You May Be Interested In: Easiest Colleges to Get Into Which Colleges Require the SAT II? The SAT is an important part of college admissions. To find out more about the SAT and how to do well:

Organizations & Behaviour Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizations & Behaviour - Assignment Example This is mainly the case when the leadership situation in the organization is competitive in nature. Servant leadership is mostly applicable in an organization that believes in values, which is a factor that was not culturally applicable to Fancy footwear. The three most valuable motivation theories for managing different groups within an organization is inclusive of Herzberg’s theory on money as a de-motivator, the four personal styles and the theory of motivation that involves three basic needs. The basic needs in this case are affiliation, achievement and power. The theories of motivation are based on the concept of intrinsic motivation, which is stronger than extrinsic motivation. A vital thing to consider is the fact that the manager in an organization cannot be able to motivate the employees, but can be able to create an environment that enables them to motivate themselves. Consequently, the application of the three motivation theories focuses on the creation of strong working relationships through the development of vibrant working environments. Managers in an organization should be willing to exert efforts towards the achievement of the organizational goals, whose conditioning takes into consideration the ability to satisfy the needs of individuals in the organization. Motivation involves getting someone to do something that he or she wants to do (Salas, 2013, 18). Motivation is a vital task for managers since it compromises their ability to encourage, delegate, communicate, train, brief, challenge, and provide rewards to the other people. The normative view of group dynamics gives a description of how to perform activities as well as organize the group. The second consideration of group dynamics involves a set of techniques that includes sensitivity training, role-play, group dynamics transactional analysis and team building among other considerations. The other view of group

Week 4 Discussion 2 (Chapter 6) Inventories Assignment

Week 4 Discussion 2 (Chapter 6) Inventories - Assignment Example It can be achieved by using radio frequency, bar coding and electronic product codes on item usually employed in the manufacturing of fast food like breads, meat, cheese, oil etc. All such items may be purchased from good suppliers who offer them in notified quantities with coded information (Warren, Reeve & Duchac, 2011). Being different natured businesses, the vending truck and the physician’s office involve only a few numbers of individuals while a shoe-retailer might involve a great number of workers and as the number of workers increase more control efforts are required to escape the loss of inventory by theft and damage. Hence the guidelines might be strict and comprehensive for the shoe- retailer but they may be less rigid for the physician’s office and the food vending truck. An internal control system is required in all sorts of businesses to ensure appropriate management of inventory can be done (Axsà ¤ter, 2006). In order to implement a proper inventory control mechanism, the following suggestions must be implemented. First of all a written procedure and policy guidelines for inventory management at department level is needed. Then in order to fully implement the framed policy, all the staff should be given proper training. Duties should be separated sufficiently among indivi duals having the responsibility for the physical inventory like placing an order, receiving, selling/ distributing and those having the responsibility for accounting the inventory records like sanctioning payments, appointing departments/customers, preserving the perpetual merchandise inventory balance within the Financial System and then reconciling it. However each can install an inventory system that keeps the record of all sorts of activities related to inventory including acquiring, sales, adjustments and returns and it should be secured in a way that any item of inventory may neither be removed

Indian Wedding Clothes Essay Example for Free

Indian Wedding Clothes Essay In India, the wedding rituals and clothes make the wedding as much as that of the bride and her groom. Both look their splendid best in gorgeous clothes. Not just the couple, but the guests attending the family and the relatives are often seen dressed up to the teeth. The bride is dressed up in auspicious colors, whereas the bridegroom is dressed to exude a regale aura. The bridesmaids and best men are often dressed in par with the bride and the groom. But they are toned down a bit because the day belongs to the couple. All the folks attending the marriage are decked up with gold jewelry including the bride and sometimes the groom. The ladies are additionally adorned with henna patterns all over their palms, hands, forearms, legs and feet. Sometimes henna patterns are replaced with alta designs which are short lived and easily removable. Indian wedding generally tend to continue for several days and new attire is worn each day. All these dresses and the color symbolize the meaning of marriage and the period that follows it. Indian wedding is one that gives more importance to details like different rituals and the various attires one wears to attend them. Hindu wedding Indian Hindu weddings continue for several days. India is a country that defines diversity and this is visible even in the wedding and its different styles. The ceremonies, the rituals, the formalities are all different between each region and culture. Unlike the Christians, Hindus wedding ceremony does not resemble the western marriages and are quite elaborate. In the North,Starting from the Tilak ceremony, each function has significance in the marriage. Tilak, Sangeet, Haldi, Baraat and the Shaadi, all necessitate the Bride and the bridegroom to wear new attire at each occasion.All these above ceremonies are known by different names in the other parts,e.g.:Simant puja in the west,or Mangalasnanam in the south and so on.But have got   he same significance all over. Bridegrooms clothes Many communities of South,West and Eastern India still adhere to the traditional costumes,i.e. Dhoti,or sometimes Lungi,and Mundu by some communities of the South.Kurta or a shirt may be worn or sometimes just a Angavastram may be used to cover the chest. On the other hand in the Northern parts, bridegroom usually wears a Sherwani, Jodhpuri suit or a western suit. The groom’s face is covered with a veiled with a curtain of flowers which is called Sehra in the North,which is not the custom elsewhere. It is also customary to wear a Taqiyah all through the ceremony in Muslim marriages. Many prefer to wear a Kurta.Kurta can be worn with Salwar,or Dhoti. A dazzling series of ensemble for bridegrooms include majestic sherwani, blended Indo-western suit and ethnic Jodhpuri suit. The exquisite shirts, coats and jackets are designed with extra care and touch to bring out the magnanimity out of the bridegroom on the marriage day. Precious embellishments are studded into the collars and the cuffs of the bridegroom’s dress. Available both in simple cottons and splendid, royal raw silk, these Kurta Pyjamas are a preferred mostly by the bridegrooms. Brides clothes Christian Bride in wedding sari The bride wears a saree or a lehenga according to the region. Red is considered to be the most auspicious color in among Hindus. While the saree is preferred as the bridal dress in South India, West, East India, most brides of other parts of India prefer Lehenga, Gagra Choli and Odni as bridal dress. Christian wedding Christian marriage in India is mostly an adaption of western wedding ceremonies. Here the bridegroom wears a western suit or tuxedo. The Bride usually opts for a silk saree or a western gown. Bridesmaid and family While during a marriage function, the bride and the bridegroom take the centre stage, the bridesmaid takes over everyone off-stage. Dainty Lehenga Cholis in bright colors, long cholis for the conservative, authentic designer lehengas and readymade lehenga cholis are usually selected by the bridesmaid as wedding ensemble. Sometimes the bridesmaids wear sari rich in silk and embroidery. Delicately put together with alluring fabrics of bright and cheery colours, these Lehengas bring out the playful nature of the bridesmaid.

state of the union :: essays research papers

Stupid White Men by Michael Moore was supposed to be published in October, but the copies printed in September were going to be shredded, since the publisher thought that humorous attacks on President Bush and his partners would not be welcome after 9-11. There was a quiet campaign to get it to readers, and HarperCollins eventually did the right thing: it has released the book unchanged and uncensored, and Moore has said he admires the courage it showed in doing so. You don't have to be a fan of Moore's famous anti-corporate, anti-racist, and anti-conservative views to appreciate that this is a real victory. You would be right to assume that "President" Bush will not be pleased by the book. Some of the chapters now have sort of a ring, like "A Very American Coup," which explains what really happened to give Florida to Bush in the last election. Bush's brother and his aids were able to fix the polls of black voters, who would have turned out for Gore. It took the BBC to uncover this story. There is plenty more sleaze to this story, which Moore obviously enjoys telling. It may no longer be unpatriotic to make fun at Bush, but Moore does not restrict himself to Bush bashing, being equally tough on Clinton and Gore. There are wonderful shots fired here, and a good laugh on almost every page. Bush's inaugural parade came up against protesters armed with eggs and tomatoes and "Hail to the Thief" signs at the point in the parade when the brand new President usually gets out and walks. "Then, suddenly, the President's car bolted and tore down the street. The decision had been made - hit the gas and get past this rabble as quickly as possible. The Secret Service agents running beside the limo were left behind, the car's tires splashing dirty rain from the street onto the men who were there to protect its passenger. It might have been the finest thing I have ever witnessed in Washington, D.C. - a pretender to the American throne forced to turn tail and run from thousands of American citizens armed only with the Truth and the ingredients of a decent omelet." A hilarious letter to President Arafat advises him to initiate mass nonviolent civil disobedience, rather than to keep drawing blood; if this advice had been taken, could the Palestinians be in any worse shape now?

Animal Farm by George Orwell Essay

Animal Farm is an allegorical novella by George Orwell published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to and during the Stalin era before the Second World War. Orwell, a democratic socialist,[1] was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, especially after his experiences with the NKVD and the Spanish Civil War.[2] In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as his novel â€Å"contre Stalin†.[3] The original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story, but the subtitle was dropped by U.S. publishers for its 1946 publication and subsequently all but one of the translations during Orwell’s lifetime omitted the addition. Other variations in the title include: A Satire and A Contemporary Satire.[3] Orwell suggested the title Union des rà ©publiques socialistes animales for the French translation, which recalled the French name of the Soviet Union, Union des rà ©publiques socialistes sovià ©tiques, and which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin for â€Å"bear†, a symbol of Russia.[3] Time magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005);[4] it also places at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is also included in the Great Books of the Western World. The novel addresses not only the corruption of the revolution by its leaders but also how wickedness, indifference, ignorance, greed and myopia corrupt the revolution. It portrays corrupt leadership as the flaw in revolution, rather than the act of revolution itself. It also shows how potential ignorance and indifference to problems within a revolution could allow horrors to happen if a smooth transition to a people’s government is not achieved. Plot summary Snowball’s revolution Old Major, the old boar on the Manor Farm, calls the animals on the farm for a meeting, where he compares the humans to parasites and teaches  the animals a revolutionary song, ‘Beasts of England’. When Major dies two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and turn his dream into a philosophy. The animals revolt and drive the drunken and irresponsible Mr Jones from the farm, renaming it â€Å"Animal Farm†. They adopt Seven Commandments of Animal-ism, the most important of which is, â€Å"All animals are equal†. Snowball attempts to teach the animals reading and writing; food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Napoleon takes the pups from the farm dogs and trains them privately. When Mr Jones tries to retake the farm, the animals defeat him at what they call the â€Å"Battle of the Cowshed†. Napoleon and Snowball struggle for leadership. When Snowball announces his idea for a windmill, Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader. Napoleon’s rule Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs, who will run the farm. Using a young pig named Squealer as a â€Å"mouthpiece†, Napoleon announces that Snowball stole the idea for the windmill from him. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. After a violent storm, the animals find the windmill annihilated. Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball destroyed the windmill, although the scorn of the neighbouring farmers suggests that the windmill’s walls were too thin. Once Snowball becomes a scapegoat, Napoleon begins purging the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with Snowball. He and the pigs abuse their power, imposing more control while reserving privileges for themselves and rewriting history, villainising Snowball and glorifying Napoleon. Squealer justifies every statement Napoleon makes, even the pigs’ alteration of the Seven Commandments of Animalism. â€Å"No animal shall sleep in beds† is changed to â€Å"No animal shall sleep in beds with sheets† when the pigs are discovered to have been sleeping in the old  farmhouse. â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol† is changed to â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol to excess† when the pigs discover the farmer’s whiskey. ‘Beasts of England’ is replaced by an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals, though cold, starving and overworked, remain convinced that they are better off than they were when under Mr Jones. Squealer abuses the animals’ poor memories and invents numbers to show their improvement. Mr Frederick, one of the neighbouring farmers, swindles Napoleon by buying old wood with forged money, and then attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Though the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer, are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to take Boxer to the veterinary surgeon’s, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin the donkey, who â€Å"could read as well as any pig†,[5] notices that the van belongs to â€Å"Alfred Simmonds, Horse Slaughterer and Glue Boiler† (a knacker), and attempts to mount a rescue; but the animals’ attempts are futile. Squealer reports that the van was purchased by the hospital and the writing from the previous owner had not been repainted. He recounts a tale of Boxer’s death in the hands of the best medical care. Shortly after Boxer’s death, it is revealed that the pigs have purchased more whiskey. Humanisation Years pass, and the pigs learn to walk upright, carry whips and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are reduced to a single phrase: â€Å"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others†. Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and the humans of the area, who congratulate Napoleon on having the hardest-working but least fed animals in the country. Napoleon announces an alliance with the humans, against the labouring classes of both â€Å"worlds†. He abolishes practices and traditions related to the Revolution, and changes the name of the farm to â€Å"The Manor Farm†. The animals, overhearing the conversation, notice that the faces of the  pigs have begun changing. During a poker match, an argument breaks out between Napoleon and Mr Pilkington when they both play the Ace of Spades, and the animals realise that the faces of the pigs look like the faces of humans, and no one can tell the difference between them. Animalism â€Å"Seven Commandments† redirects here. For the Noahide code, see Seven Laws of Noah.: The seven laws listed by the Tosefta and the Talmud are[7] 1. Prohibition of Idolatry 2. Prohibition of Murder 3. Prohibition of Theft 4. Prohibition of Sexual immorality 5. Prohibition of Blasphemy 6. Prohibition of eating flesh taken from an animal while it is still alive 7. Establishment of courts of law The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major’s ideas into an actual philosophy, which they formally name Animalism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer indulge in the vices of humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading). Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government’s revising of history in order to exercise control of the people’s beliefs about themselves and their society.[6] The original commandments are: 1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. 2. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. 3. No animal shall wear clothes. 4. No animal shall sleep in a bed. 5. No animal shall drink alcohol. 6. No animal shall kill any other animal. 7. All animals are equal. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear them of accusations of law-breaking (such as â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol† having â€Å"to excess† appended to it and â€Å"No animal shall sleep in a bed† with â€Å"with sheets† added to it). The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: 1. No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets. 2. No animal shall drink alcohol to excess. 3. No animal shall kill any other animal without cause. Eventually these are replaced with the maxims, â€Å"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others†, and â€Å"Four legs good, two legs better!† as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans, and by prevent animals from following the humans’ evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.[7] Characters Pigs Old Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration  that fuels the Rebellion in the book. He is an allegory of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, the founders of communism, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display also recalls Lenin, whose embalmed body was put on display.[8][9] Napoleon – â€Å"A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way†,[10] An allegory ofJoseph Stalin,[8] Napoleon is the main villain of Animal Farm. In the first French version of Animal Farm, Napoleon is called Cà ©sar, the French form of Caesar,[3] although another translation has him as Napolà ©on.[11] Snowball – Napoleon’s rival and original head of the farm after Jones’ overthrow. He is mainly based on Leon Trotsky,[8] but also combines elements from Vladimir Lenin.[9] Squealer – A small white fat porker who serves as Napoleon’s right hand pig and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of Molotov.[8] Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of â€Å"Beasts of England† is banned. The Piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon (albeit not explicitly stated) and are the first generation of animals actually subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon’s takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed. Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon’s food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon. Humans Mr Jones – The former owner of the farm, Jones is a very heavy drinker. The animals revolt against him after he drinks so much that he does not feed or take care of them. Mr Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an â€Å"alliance† with Napoleon, represents Germany. Mr Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty owner of Foxwood, a neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds, represents Britain. Mr Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon for the public relations of Animal Farm to human society, who is eventually used to procure luxuries like alcohol for the pigs. Equines Boxer – Boxer is a loyal, kind, dedicated, and respectable horse, although quite dim-witted. Clover – Boxer’s companion, constantly caring for him; she also acts as a matriarch of sorts for the other horses and the other animals in general. Mollie – Mollie is a self-centred, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution. Benjamin – Benjamin, a donkey, is one of the oldest animals. He has the worst temper, but is also one of the wisest animals on the farm, and is one of the few who can actually read. He is skeptical and pessimistic, his most-often-made statement being â€Å"Life will go on as it has always gone on – that is, badly.†[12] Other animals Muriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read. The Puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, taken away from them by Napoleon at birth and reared by Napoleon to be his security force. Moses – An old raven who occasionally visits the farm, regaling its denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called Sugarcandy Mountain, where he avers that all animals go when they die—but only if they work hard. He is interpreted as symbolising the Russian Orthodox Church, with Sugarcandy Mountain an allusion to Heaven for the animals.[13] The Sheep – They show limited understanding of the situations but nonetheless blindly support Napoleon’s ideals. The Hens – The hens are among the first to rebel against Napoleon. The Cows – Their milk is stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them, and is stirred into the pigs’ mash every day while the other animals are denied such luxuries. The Cat – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods, and is forgiven because her excuses are so convincing and she â€Å"purred so affectionately that is was impossible not to believe in her good intentions†.[14] She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually â€Å"voted on both sides†.[14] Glossary of Terms Coccidiosis: a parasitic infection that causes bloody diarrhea and sudden death in animals Communism: a theory or system of social organization based on the  holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state; in practice, communism is often a totalitarian system of government Comrade: a fellow member of a political party; a member of the Communist party Disinter: to exhume; to unearth that which is buried Proletariat: in Marxism, the class of workers, especially industrial wage earners, who do not possess capital or property and must sell their labor to survive Propaganda: information, ideas, or rumors disseminated to help or harm a person, group, movement, institution, nation, or other entity Regime: a mode or system of rule or government; such a system when in power Socialism: a theory or system of social organization that advocates vesting the ownership and control of the means of production and distribution, of capital, land, and other assets in the community as a whole Totalitarianism: absolute control by the state or a governing branch of a highly centralized institution Tushes: small, short tusks such as those belonging to a boar. Major Themes The Soviet Union under Stalinism Animal Farm is a satire of totalitarian governments in their many guises. But Orwell composed the book for a more specific purpose: to serve as a cautionary tale about Stalinism. It was for this reason that he faced  such difficulty in getting the book published; by the time Animal Farm was ready to meet its readers, the Allies were cooperating with the Soviet Union. The allegorical characters of the novel represent specific historical figures and different factions of Imperial Russian and Soviet society. These include Karl Marx (Major), Vladimir Lenin (Major), Leon Trotsky (Snowball), Joseph Stalin (Napoleon), Adolf Hitler (Frederick), the Allies (Pilkington), the peasants (Boxer), the elite (Mollie), and the church (Moses). The resemblance of some of the novel’s events to events in Soviet history is indubitable. For example, Snowball’s and Napoleon’s power struggle is a direct allegory of Trotsky’s and Stalin’s. Frederick’s trade agreement with Napoleon, and his subsequent breaking of the agreement, represents the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact that preceded World War II. The following Battle of the Windmill represents World War II itself. Despite his fairy-tale clarity in satirizing some historical events, Orwell is less specific about others. For example, the executions in Chapter VII conflate the Red Terror with the Great Purge. The executions themselves bear resemblance to both events, although their details connect them more to the Moscow Trials than to the Red Terror. Squealer’s subsequent announcement that the executions have ended the Rebellion connects them to the period of the Red Terror, however. Orwell leaves some ambiguity in the identities of the Rebellion and the Battle of the Cowshed. These ambiguities help the reader focus on the overall satire of Stalinism and the broader warning about the evils of totalitarian government. The Inevitability of Totalitarianism Orwell held the pessimistic belief that totalitarianism was inevitable, even in the West. According to Russell Baker, who wrote the preface to Animal Farm’s 1996 Signet Classics version, Orwell’s pessimism stemmed from his having grown up in an age of dictatorship. Witnessing Hitler’s and Stalin’s movements from afar, as well as fighting totalitarianism in the Spanish Civil War, Orwell came to believe in the rise of a new species of autocrat, worse even than the tyrants of old. This cynicism is reflected in  both of his highly successful novels, Animal Farm and 1984. Orwell emphasizes the insidiousness of totalitarianism early in the novel, when the pigs take the fresh milk and apples. The pigs justify their actions on the basis of their superiority; they are smart and need more nutrition than the other animals to fuel their brainpower. There is no scientific basis for the pigs’ claim—in fact, if anyone needs more food to fuel their labor, it is the manual laborers—but they can count on the animals’ being too ignorant to realize that. In this way, Orwell makes the point that totalitarianism need not be blatant in order to be operating. It can hide under the guise of the â€Å"greater good† as it did in the Soviet Union before the totalitarianism became obvious. Orwell uses a cyclical structure in Animal Farm, which helps advance the idea of totalitarianism’s predictability. The novel begins with Jones as autocratic tyrant and ends with Napoleon not only in Jones’s position, but in his clothes as well. Over the course of the novel, Napoleon essentially becomes Jones just as Stalin becomes an autocrat after pretending to espouse equality and freedom. Orwell cements this idea in the book’s final scene, where he writes, â€Å"Twelve voices were shouting in anger, and they were all alike. No question, now, what had happened to the faces of the pigs. The creatures outside looked from pig to man, and from man to pig, and from pig to man again; but already it was impossible to say which was which† (139). The circularity of Orwell’s story prevents the reader from imagining a better future for Animal Farm. After all, even if another Rebellion were to take place, its leaders would eventually come to emulate Napoleon. According to Baker, technology turned out to be the force freeing people from Orwell’s age of dictators. But â€Å"technology† can be just another banner under which to rally the people. While Orwell does portray technology as a source of progress in Animal Farm, he points out that it is useless unless it is in the people’s hands. Most notably, even when the windmill is finished it is used for milling corn instead of its original purpose of supplying the animals with electricity in their stalls. Intelligence and Education as Tools of Oppression From the very beginning of the novel, we become aware of education’s role in stratifying Animal Farm’s population. Following Major’s death, the pigs are the ones that take on the task of organizing and mobilizing the other animals because they are â€Å"generally recognized as being the cleverest of the animals† (35). At first, the pigs are loyal to their fellow animals and to the revolutionary cause. They translate Major’s vision of the future faithfully into the Seven Commandments of Animalism. However, it is not long before the pigs’ intelligence and education turn from tools of enlightenment to implements of oppression. The moment the pigs are faced with something material that they want—the fresh milk—they abandon their morals and use their superior intellect and knowledge to deceive the other animals. The pigs also limit the other animals’ opportunities to gain intelligence and education early on. They teach themselves to read and write from a children’s book but destroy it before the other animals can have the same chance. Indeed, most of the animals never learn more than a few letters of the alphabet. Once the pigs cement their status as the educated elite, they use their mental advantage to manipulate the other animals. For example, knowing that the other animals cannot read the Seven Commandments, they revise them whenever they like. The pigs also use their literacy to learn trades from manuals, giving them an opportunity for economic specialization and advancement. Content in the role of the intelligentsia, the pigs forgo manual labor in favor of bookkeeping and organizing. This shows that the pigs have not only the advantage of opportunity, but also the opportunity to reject whatever opportunities they like. The pigs’ intelligence and education allow them to bring the other animals into submission through the use of propaganda and revisionism. At the book’s end, we witness Napoleon’s preparations to educate a new generation of pigs and indoctrinate them into the code of oppression. Propaganda and Duplicity Working as a propagandist during World War II, Orwell experienced firsthand both the immense power and the dishonesty of propaganda. Many  types of governments make use of propaganda, not only totalitarian ones. Consider, for instance, the arguments that led many United States citizens to go along with the idea of invading Iraq after the September 11, 2001, terror attacks. Propaganda serves the positive task of uniting the people, sometimes at the cost of misleading them. Orwell takes a firm stance on the harmfulness of propaganda in Animal Farm while acknowledging its value for rallying a mistreated and disillusioned populace. In Chapter IX, Orwell demonstrates the positive value of propaganda. By this point, the animals are so downtrodden that they are desperate for something in which to believe. (Note the irony, though: it is Napoleon who has robbed them of their belief in the original version of Animalism.) The falsely optimistic statistics, the songs, and especially the Spontaneous Demonstrations give the animals something to live for. This chapter is an exception in terms of portraying propaganda in a positive light. For the majority ofAnimal Farm, Orwell skewers propaganda and exposes its nature as deception. Squealer represents a totalitarian government’s propaganda machine. Eloquent to a fault, he can make the animals believe almost anything. This fact is especially clear in Squealer’s interactions with Clover and Muriel. Each time Clover suspects that the Seven Commandments have been changed, Squealer manages to convince her that she is wrong. After the executions, Napoleon abolishes the singing of â€Å"Beasts of England† in favor of a new anthem, the lyrics of which contain a promise never to harm Animal Farm. In this propagandist manoeuvre, Napoleon replaces the revolutionary spirit of â€Å"Beasts of England† with the exact opposite, a promise not to rebel. In addition to being a source of manipulation, propaganda is an agent of fear and terror. Orwell demonstrates this quite clearly with Napoleon’s vilification of Snowball and his assurances that Snowball could attack the animals at any minute. He uses similar fear tactics regarding Frederick and Pilkington. The most egregious example of propaganda in the novel is the maxim that replaces the Seven Commandments: â€Å"All animals are equal / But some animals are more equal than others.† The idea of â€Å"more equal† is mathematically improbable and a nonsensical manipulation of language, but by  this time, the animals are too brainwashed to notice. Violence and Terror as Means of Control In Animal Farm, Orwell criticizes the ways that dictators use violence and terror to frighten their populaces into submission. Violence is one of the yokes from which the animals wish to free themselves when they prepare for the Rebellion. Not only does Jones overwork the animals and steal the products of their labor, but he can whip or slaughter them at his discretion. Once the pigs gain control of the animals, they, like Jones, discover how useful violence and terror can be. They use this knowledge to their full advantage. The foremost example of violence and terror in the novel is the pattern of public executions. The executions can be said to represent both the Red Terror and the Great Purge, but they stand more broadly for the abuse of power. For example, they are also similar to the Taliban’s public executions in Kabul’s soccer stadium in modern Afghanistan. Capital punishment for criminals is a hotly debated issue. Killing suspected criminals, as Napoleon does, is quite another issue. The executions perhaps best symbolize the Moscow Trials, which were show trials that Stalin arranged to instill fear in the Soviet people. To witnesses at the time, the accused traitors’ confessions seemed to be given freely. In fact, they were coerced. Napoleon likely coerces confessions from many of the animals that he executes. Orwell’s use of the allegory genre serves him well in the execution scene. Execution with weapons is a violent and horrifying act, but many people have become desensitized to it. Orwell’s allegorical executioners, the dogs that kill cruelly, portray the bloody and inescapably animalistic side of execution. Terror comes also in threats and propaganda. Each time the animals dare to question an aspect of Napoleon’s regime, Squealer threatens them with Jones’s return. This is doubly threatening to the animals because it would mean another battle that, if lost, would result in a return to their former lifestyle of submission. Jones’s return is such a serious threat that it quashes the animals’ curiosity without fail. The other major example of fear  tactics in the novel is the threat of Snowball and his collaborators. Napoleon is able to vilify Snowball in the latter’s absence and to make the animals believe that his return, like Jones’s, is imminent. Snowball is a worse threat than Jones, because Jones is at least safely out of Animal Farm. Snowball is â€Å"proved† to be not only lurking along Animal Farm’s borders but infiltrating the farm. Napoleon’s public investigation of Snowball’s whereabouts cements the animals’ fear of Snowball’s influence. In modern language, Snowball is pegged as the terrorist responsible for the infringements on the rights and liberties instigated by the pigs. Exploitation and the Need for Human Rights Exploitation is the issue around which the animals unite. Initially, the animals do not realize Jones is exploiting them. For this reason, Old Major’s speech is a revelation of momentous proportions. Major explains to the animals that they are enslaved and exploited and that Man is to blame. He teaches them not only what exploitation means, but also the fact that it is not inevitable. Orwell suggests that exploitation is, in fact, bound to happen when one class of society has an advantage over another. The opposite of exploitation, according to Major, is the state of being â€Å"rich and free.† Major’s ideas about animal rights symbolize the importance—and scarcity—of human rights in an oppressive regime. Gaining freedom does not necessarily lead people also to become rich, but it is better to be poor and free than poor and exploited. All the animals on Animal Farm are exploited under Napoleon’s control, save the pigs. Even the dogs, which work closely with the pigs, are exploited. The dogs face perhaps even a worse form of exploitation than the other animals, because they are made into agents of intimidation and death. Whereas Napoleon exploits the other animals’ physical strength and their ignorance, he exploits the dogs’ viciousness and turns them into villains against their parents’ wishes. Boxer’s life is a particularly sad example of exploitation because he exploits himself, believing wholeheartedly in Napoleon’s goodness. In the  end, Napoleon turns the tables and exploits Boxer, having him slaughtered for profit. By the end of the novel, we see clearly how the animals participate in their own exploitation. They are beginning to build a schoolhouse for the thirty-one young pigs Napoleon has fathered (perhaps an oblique reference to the â€Å"Thirty Tyrants† of ancient Greece). That schoolhouse will never benefit the animals that build it; rather, it will be used to educate the pigs and indoctrinate them into the cycle of exploiting others. Throughout the novel, Orwell shows us how the lack of human rights results in total helplessness. However, though it underscores the need for human rights, the novel does not suggest how to achieve them. After all, once the animals expel Jones and gain rights for themselves, the pigs take those rights away and the cycle of exploitation continues with new players. Apathy and Acceptance In the beginning of Animal Farm, the idea of freedom rouses the animals as if from a long slumber. Immediately following Major’s death, the animals begin preparing themselves for the Rebellion; just the idea of revolution is enough to motivate them, since they do not expect it to happen in their lifetimes. By the book’s end, the animals have become as apathetic as Benjamin always was. Despite the many hardships and injustices they face, the animals’ pride as well as Napoleon’s propaganda keep them invested in the â€Å"greater good† and the illusion of freedom. If Benjamin is the harbinger of apathy, Boxer is its antithesis. Strong not only in body but also in spirit, Boxer will make any sacrifice for the benefit of Animal Farm. With Boxer’s eventual betrayal by the leaders he served so unconditionally, Orwell lays bare another type of apathy—theirs. Far from truly considering Boxer a loyal comrade, the pigs treat him as apathetically as they would a mere object. Symbolically, they even make a profit by having him turned into literal objects—glue and bone meal. Boxer’s enthusiasm does not give him an advantage, but the other animals’ eventual apathy gives them a defense mechanism against the painful reality of their lives. It is no coincidence that Animal Farm’s most apathetic and cynical animal, Benjamin, is one of those that survives the  longest. Benjamin’s emotional detachment from situations, whether they are good or bad, keeps him from being disappointed. In his apathy and cynicism, Benjamin represents the stereotypical â€Å"gloomy† Russian and also the perennially pessimistic Orwell himself. Summary and analysis of Chapter I Mr. Jones, the owner of Manor Farm, stumbles drunkenly up to bed as the farm animals wait in still silence. The moment he is out of sight, they begin to bustle around, preparing themselves for the big meeting that is to take place that night. Old Major has called the meeting to discuss a strange dream he had the previous night. He is waiting for his fellow animals in the big barn.